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nothing to address the material conditions of life for black people. When I read those reports from the 1940s I was really struck by the fact that while they had people do all these rankings of their attitudes, there was basically a passing reference to the fact that 40% of the city at least had been restricted by these racial covenants. Racial covenants are a legal clause that specifies that land can never be occupied or sold to anyone who's not white. The first one that Mapping Prejudice has found was introduced in Minneapolis in 1910. Before that moment, Minneapolis was not a particularly segregated place. But after, racial covenants were in use for 40 years. A lot of these contemporary disparities that are so pronounced and brutal have roots in the history of deliberate efforts to make sure that all land in the city remained in the control of white people. Bergin: You start to see this map taking place, where black folks and other people of color couldn't buy, couldn't build, weren't allowed to even occupy. Then, as history shows us, the redlining that the Federal Housing Authority implemented during the Depression literally follows these profiles and these boundaries and barriers in terms of what neighborhoods were worthy of investing in and underwriting loans in. What we learned recently is that it wasn't just informal patterns of occupancy — it's all based on the systemic racism of the 19th century. And then it shows up later in the 20th century, in terms of the growing disparities. "This is how segregation works in Minneapolis: It re -inscribes the racial stereotypes, because it keeps peaceful people isolated." Delegard: You could tell the story that I told you about almost any American city: Racial covenants are not unique to Minneapolis, redlining's not unique, white violence is not unique, real estate steering is not unique to Minneapolis. But the way they were used has created a different environment here. When they first started to be used, there were just very few African Americans in this city. Because the restrictions were adopted in such a universal, overwhelming way, where so much of the land as it developed in the city throughout the 20th century was just off-limits to anyone who was not white — the fact that that happened at a really critical moment in the city's history in the way that it did really created a different geography of intolerance in this city, a segregation of opportunity. Because of that, it became very, very hard for African Americans to find a place to live and buy a home — and very hard to buy a home where they could actually amass wealth over time, rather than homeownership being a financial burden. Shannon Smith Jones, executive director of the nonprofit affordable housing organization Hope Community: We can tout this as a really great space to live. Minnesota is absolutely beautiful: We do have beautiful parks, we have walkable places, bikable places, all of these lakes. But who and how we get to access those things has always been a part of it. Green spaces look different in North Minneapolis than they do in other parts of the city. Even up until recently, when they started investing in inner-city parks, there are huge disparities in what parks look like in North Minneapolis vs. Southwest Minneapolis. There's been a value laid in the infrastructures that have allowed for those that succeed and those who that don't to be held along the racial lines.